2020 - Once upon a time in Islamic Gibraltar
History of the Mahometan Empire in Spain
Shakespear’s translation is taken from a small section of a much larger work written in Arabic, by Ahmad, son of Mahomet, son of Ahmad, surnamed Almukry- aka Al-Makkarí, (c1578 - 1632) a native of Tilimsan (Tlemsen) in Africa. Its Arabic title is Nafhu-t-Tib fi Tariqhi Ghusni-l-Andalusa-r-ratib. The account is basically a history of Ibnu-I-Khatib - vizir to Muhammad, the son of Abu-l-Hajjaj sultan of Granada. According to the author this work was completed in 1630. (p32)
Pascual de Gayangos’ translation of Al-Makkarí is taken from similar manuscripts and his work is full of references to Shakespear’s translation. The following quotes- which might be usefully compared with those of Gayangos - which you can read in another essay in this series - are from Shakespear
Roderick takes over as King of the VisigothsOn the death of this monarch (Witiza), Roderick, a brave and warlike chieftain, having more influence in the state than the children of (Witiza), procured them to be set aside from the succession without either war or violence; an d, after some commotion, the people elected Roderick for their sovereign. At that time the capital of the country was Toledo . . . p55
King Roderick
Notes: Then follows a lengthy account of the legend of the padlocked house in Toledo which I will leave out.
Story of Julian’s Daughter
Among the nobles and chiefs of the Barbarians in Spain, it was customary for them to send their children to the residence of the King at Toledo, that they might be employed in his service, be habituated to the polished manners of his court, and obtain his patronage. When grown up, the sovereign would marry them to one another, agreeably to the dignity of their parents, give them suitable portions, and celebrate their nuptials.
In compliance with this custom, Julian the governor of Ceuta, conveyed a daughter of his, who was extremely beautiful, to Toledo: when the King beheld her, he was so enamoured of her, that he did not hesitate to obtain by violence the gratification of his passion, when persuasion had failed. With this indignity the lady contrived by a secret letter to acquaint her father; who in his rage exclaimed, “By the faith of the Messiah, I will annihilate his power, and undermine his feet ” and crossing the straits from Ceuta, though in the midst of winter, he hastened to Toledo to the presence of King Roderick; who blamed him for coming at so unseasonable a time, and questioned him as to the cause of his journey.
Dissembling his real motive, he pretended that his wife being seriously indisposed, and de- siring greatly to see her daughter once more before she died, had entreated him to fetch her . . . he requested the king to allow him to return immediately, and his daughter to accompany him. This request, so speciously urged, was promptly granted; and, after shewing Julian much favour, the king delivered to him his daughter. . .p56
Florinda and her friends being spied upon by Roderick (1852 – Detail - Franz Xaver Winterhalte)
Notes - Gayangos makes this comment on the Julian fable in a footnote in Makkarí P513 V1
This fable, which has found its way into most of the sober histories of Spain, was first introduced by the Monk of Silos, a chronicler of the eleventh century. There can be no doubt that he borrowed it from the Arabs, but it seems hard to believe that it was altogether a tale of their invention. There are facts in it which an Arab could not have invented unless he drew them from Christian sources; and, as I shall show hereafter, the Arabs knew and consulted the writings of the Christians. If Ilyan was Roderick’s vassal, if he was his "Comes Spathariorum" or captain of his body-guard, (which some of the Spanish historians have translated by "Conde de las Esparteras")—there is nothing improbable in his daughter being educated in the royal palace.
Julian and MusaOn his return to Ceuta, Julian delayed not to commence the execution of his revenge: for this purpose, he hastened to the city of Ifrikia (Ifriqiya)to meet the Emir Musa, son of Nasir, to persuade him to invade Spain ; and after the representations which he made of the riches of the peninsula, the temperature of its climate, and the abundance of its useful productions, as well as of the weakness of the Goths, and the internal dissensions prevailing among them, Musa became eager to seize such an opportunity as now presented itself; and formed a treaty of alliance with Julian, by which the latter was bound to join the Moslems, and to second them.
But before Musa would actually engage in so hazardous an enterprise, he first required of Julian to evince, his determined animosity against his countrymen by attacking them himself. To this requisition the Count acceded; and having collected troops from his own government, and embarked them on board two ships, he made, at the close of the ninetieth year of the Hijra, a predatory incursion on the coast of Aljaziratu-l-Khazra (Al-Yazirat Al -Hadra - The Green Island – Algeciras)
After staying there a few days, during which he gained much plunder, he returned safely with all his men; and as the Moslems began to confide in Julian, Musa now applied to the Khalif for permission to invade Spain: when Alwalidu-bn Abdulmalik ( Al-Walid I), the then commander of the faithful, directed him to make an incursion into the country, that he might previously ascertain its actual state; and not to venture incautiously with the Moslems on the perilous ocean. p57
In consequence of this instruction, Musa informed the Khalif that the sea between Africa and Spain was merely a strait, which the eye could reach across, and not a tremendous ocean. Alwalid then commanded him, if even such were the case, to make previous trial of the country, as before pointed out.
Tarif’s Raid on Tarifa
Musa therefore dispatched a Barbar, (Berber) one of his officers, named Tarif, with four hundred foot and one hundred horse, in four vessels: they effected a landing on an island, now called the island of Tarif (Tarifa), over against Aljaziratu-l-Khazra (Al-Yazirat Al-Hadra) ; where he remained some days till all his men had joined him. Afterwards, he made an incursion into the country and obtained much valuable plunder, especially a captive, more beautiful than any whom Musa or his people had before seen. . . witnessing its success, the people became eager to enter on the projected invasion. p57
Tariq Invades Iberia
At the repeated instigation of Julian, seconded by these fortunate enterprises, Musa then commissioned a servant of his, named Tariq ibn Ziyad led the van of his army, to proceed to Spain with seven thousand men; these were chiefly Barbars or natives of Barbary and slaves, very few of them being genuine Arabs; they were conveyed over at different times in four vessels, which were provided by Julian, and which passed and re-passed till the whole had joined their leader at the rock named after him.
Ibn Haiyan (Ibn Hayyan) dates the landing of Tariq on . . . about July A. C. 710). It is otherwise said, that Tariq disembarked at the rook named after him, on the 5th of Rajah in the same year: that the number embarked amounted to twelve thousand men, less by sixteen, which were almost entirely Berbers; that Julian transported this force at various times to the coast of Andalusia in merchant vessels (whence collected is unknown): and that Tariq passed over after his army.
When Roderick received intelligence of this invasion, and learned that Julian had instigated it, he was in the territory of Pamplona, carrying on a war against the Bascons. Sensible, however, of the danger that impended from this unexpected attack, he hastened to avert it: and coming to Cordova, he took up his abode in the castle there, which the Arabs called after him the Palace of Roderick: and waited tll his troops had assembled from different parts and joined him. As soon as his numerous host was collected, he proceeded towards the district of Shadhuna and, on learning the great superiority of the King’s army, which is said to have amounted to near one hundred thousand men, completely equipped and prepared.
Tariq wrote to Musa for assistance, saying, that he had taken Algesiratu-l Khazri, the port of Andalusia, got possession of the passage into the country, and subdued its districts as far as the lake; but that Roderick was advancing against him with a force which he had not the means of resisting. Musa, therefore, who had been engaged in preparing ships for the purpose of conveying troops, since Tariq’s departure, and had by this time collected a great number, dispatched by them five thousand Moslems, making with the seven thousand before expedited, according to Ibn Haiyun, twelve thousand men, eager for plunder and anxious to engage with their opponents. p58
FootnoteTariq, son of Ziyid, according to some, or son of Amru, as related by others- He is said to have governed Tangiers after the conquest of that city. Ibn Bashkuval relates that he was more eloquent than can be described; and his knowledge of government, the same historian remarks, was sufficiently proved by his conquest and rule of Spain till the arrival of his superior, Musa. p54
FootnoteIbn Bashkuval, however, calls him (Tariq) Tiriku-bn Omar, or Amru; and be is said by some authors to have been a freeman, a native of Hamadan in Persia, and by others a native of Barbary. But whatever his name or condition might be, he is undoubtedly a different person from the commander of the first expedition, though Mariana, the Spanish historian, describes them as the same; on this point, however, as well as on many others respecting the Arabs, the author last mentioned was evidently so deficient in information, and so blinded by prejudice, as rarely to deserve any credit. p58
FootnoteIbn Bashkuval, however, relates that Tariq landed on the rock named after him, Jabalu-t Tariq (Gibraltar), which the common people call Jabalu-l Fath (Yabal-Fath - Mount of Victory), on Monday the fifth of Rajah of the year 92, with twelve thousand men, wanting twelve; and that this army was almost wholly composed of Barbars,'but very few Arabs being amongst them.
FootnoteIbn Khaldun, another historian, says Tariq passed the straits with about three hundred Arabs and ten thousand Barbars, which force he divided into two parts; he himself landing with one division at Jabalu-l Fath, named, in consequence of this event, Jabalu-t Tirik; and Tarifu-bn Malik (Tarif Ibn Malik Abu Zar) with the other division disembarking at the spot where the city, called Tarifa alter him, is situated. These stations the invaders walled round and fortified.
"Jabalu-l Fath" must be Yabal al-Fath a name given to it in 1160 by the Almohad Caliph Abd al Mu'min.
"Jabalu-t Tirik" must be Yabal Tariq.
Plot against RoderickTo this body, also, were joined the forces of Julian, who guided the Moslems to the passes of the country, as well as gathered intelligence for them. On the approach of Roderick to meet his enemies, the princes and chiefs of the Barbarians conspiring together said:
“This wretch has by force got the dominion over us, to which he is not justly entitled, and his conduct gives us reason to suspect his designs against us, whilst these invaders do not wish to settle in our country, but their intention is to return when they have laden themselves with plunder; let us, therefore, desert the usurper in battle, that these strangers may deliver us from him: and when they shall have departed, we can place on the throne him to whom it rightly belongs.” p59
In this sentiment they coincided, and agreed to act accordingly. The sons of Ghitisha, (Witiza) the last king, too, who in hopes of gaining the throne of their father, headed this conspiracy, commanded the right and left wings of the Gothic army: and, previous to the engagement, they made an offer to Tirik of joining him in the battle on condition, that after gaining the victory, he should secure to them all their father's possessions in Spain, amounting to three thousand valuable farms or manors.
The reason they urged for this defection was, that Roderick, who was a servant only of their father’s and their inferior, had by force deprived them of the power he then possessed. Tariq, of course, did not hesitate to accept these proposals; and the junction they formed with him, after the battle had commenced, was a principal cause of his success. p60
The Battle of GuadaleteAccording to the historian Arrazy (Ahmad al-Razi – see my essay), the contest between the two armies began on Sunday . . .and continued till Sunday . . . when the Almighty put the idolaters to flight; and the bones of the slain continued for a long time afterwards to cover the field of battle.
Others relate, that when Roderick was informed of the descent of Tariq from the rock (of Gibraltar) he was at war in a distant part; but that he hastened to oppose the invaders with an army of seventy thousand men; bringing at the same time his treasures on waggons, whilst he himself rode on a throne, borne between two beasts of burthen, having a canopy over him set with pearls, rubies, and emeralds. Towards the end of the month Ramazan of the year 92, Tariq fixed his camp near that of Roderick, and the two armies engaged on the Guadalike (perhaps Guadalete) in the district of Shadhuna; or, as another describes the field of battle, at the lake when they fought resolutely on both sides, till the right and left wings, in which were the sons of Ghitisha, fled: but still the centre, with Roderick stood firm a little while. p61
Being panic struck, however, by some occurrence, Roderick himself with the main body oft he army soon took to flight; and no certain intelligence was afterwards received of him: though his horse, bearing a saddle covered with gold and adorned with rubies, was found by the Moslems plunging in the mud of the river ; and one of his boots, but not the other, was discovered sticking in the mud ; from which circumstances it is conjectured, that he perished in the stream.
Battle of Guadalete (Salvador Martinez Cubells)
After the battle, the nobles and great men of the Goths who had fallen, were known by the rings of gold on their fingers; those of inferior condition by similar ornaments of silver; and the slaves were distinguished by brass. Of the plunder Tariq deducted one fifth; and the rest was divided among nine thousand Moslems, besides the servants and followers.
When the people across the straits heard of this success of Tariq, and of the spoils he had acquired, they flocked to him from all quarters, passing the sea on every boat or bark they could find. At this the people of Spain were obliged to quit the plain country, and to betake themselves to their mountains and fortresses. Tariq first advanced against Medina Shadhuna (Medina Sidonia) which he besieged and took by force of arms: thence he proceeded to Madhrur whence he turned to Carmona, and thence to Seville; the people of the latter place making peace with him on condition of paying tribute. . .
Tariq continued his merry way, adding to his conquests either by treaty or by force until he reached the city of the Table, (Medina Celi) beyond the mountains:
Notes: Then follows the legend of Solomon’s Table which I have omitted. p66
When Musa received from Tariq an account of his victory over Roderick, and of the spoils he had found, he was moved with jealousy against him, and prepared to lead an army himself to Spain. Having, therefore, committed Africa to his eldest son, Abdallah, (Abd-al-Aziz) he proceeded to that quarter with a numerous body of soldiers and of chiefs, amounting to eighteen thousand men, or upwards; and he reached Spain in the month Ramazan of the year ninety-three.
On his arrival, he not only avoided the rock at which Tariq disembarked, and landed at another named after himself, Jabal Musa; but he refused to penetrate the country by the same route which Tariq had taken. His guides, therefore, who were Julian’s adherents, promised to conduct him to cities of more importance, and more replete with plunder than those which Tariq had conquered . . .
Notes: Jabal Musa - Yabal Musa (Apes Hill) is also a peak in the Atlas Mountains. It is visible from Gibraltar. I am not sure where Musa landed, as the name he apparently gave the place does not seem to have survived.
Then follows a series of commentaries on Musa’s passage through Iberia until he finally catches up with Tariq.
Musa chastises TariqMusa entered Gallicia by the pass named after him, and penetrated through that country till he overtook the leader of the van of his army, Tariq, at Astorga when Musa quarrelled with him publicly, and manifested his animosity towards him. But it is also reported that immediately on beholding Musa, Tariq alighted to do honour to him; when Musa cried out against him with a loud voice, and reproached him for presuming to act independently of him and contrary to his orders. They then proceeded together to Toledo, where Musa required of him to produce the booty and public treasures in his hands; and the celebrated table was a specific article which he insisted on having without delay: p70
Notes: By the beginning of the 11th century, close to three hundred years after Tariq’s invasion, the complex series of battles and political manoeuvrings by Moslems and Christians whether among or against each other do not seem to have been of any consequence in so far as Gibraltar was concerned.
As far as we know not even the death of the Caliphate of Cordoba, al-Mansur the Victorious – effectively if not in fact the ruler of the entire territory of Moslem al-Andalus and more than half of Iberia - seems to have made the slightest difference on whatever developments were going on in Gibraltar, if any.
Al-Mansur was actually the chamberlain of the actual Caliph – the week and ineffectual Hisham II, exercising his power over the entire Iberian Peninsula and parts of the Maghreb. Among his many campaigns was one in Algeciras in 985 AD – but not a word about Gibraltar which was, for whatever that might have been worth - part of the Caliphate of Cordoba.
The Era of the TaifasAll these princes, however, sought to conciliate the Christian tyrant, and to ward of his attacks by paying tribute to him, till the arrival of Yusufu-bn Tasafin, (Yusuf Tashfin), Almoravid) sovereign of Marocco ; who extended his empire greatly, removed these princes, and became the protector of Andalusia.
The sovereignty of the land then became divided amongst the chiefs and Emirs of the Barbars and Arabs; who were not only in a constant state of warfare amongst themselves, but who also sought the aid of the Christian despot against each other. p123
Notes: The Arabic word “Taifa” translates as petty kingdoms or emirates. From 1035 to 1058 AD Gibraltar initially became part of the Ḥammudid Taifa of Algeciras confirming it as the most important town in the region. The taifa was later absorbed by the larger Abbadid “Taifa” of Seville (from 1042 to 1091). It was Muhammad al-Muʿtamid - 1069 to 1091 - who ordered the strengthening of Gibraltar’s defences, the first time in which the place appears as a historical entity since the long-gone days of Tariq. This event however remains unmentioned by Almukry/Al-Makkarí
Abd al-Mu’min and the Almohad DynastyAbout the same time, Abdulmumin (Abd al-Mu’min) came to Ceuta, where he fitted-out fleets against Spain, and collected forces for that country . . .went against Mahadia, and obtained possession of it; he also conquered Ifrikia (Ifriqiya), and enlarged his empire to a considerable extent (and a) great part of Andalusia submitted to his sway . . .
. . . the divided sovereignties of Spain had disappeared, as in the manner above related; but when that dynasty was attacked . . . in Africa, Spain relapsed into nearly the same disunion as it had before experienced. Abdulmumin, however. . . first sent over the straits twelve thousand horse to the relief of Cordova, which was besieged . . . by Alfonso King of Toledo and the Gallicias, with an army of forty thousand horse: in consequence of the arrival of which succour, Alfonso raised the siege; and the city was given up to the commander of Abdulmumin’s forces there. . . p 130/131
Notes: The narrative continue describing Abd al-Mu’min’s conquests – but unfortunately no mention at all of his founding of Madinat al-Fath – the first proper town of Gibraltar.
Ibn HudIn 1228, the Christians entered the district of Merida, the ancient capital of the interior of Spain, though Badajos afterwards became the seat of government in that part of the country, and took it from Muhammad ibn Hud. p 135/136
Ibn Hud doing his thing on the left (13th century - Cantigas de Santa Maria)
Notes: After the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 the Almohads were no longer able to protect the country. Ibn Hud then became the leader of the rebellion and by 1228 he had become the ruler of practically all al-Andalus – and of course Gibraltar – the only reason I have bothered to mention him here.
The Marinid Abu al-hasan captures GibraltarBut the princes of the house of Marin (the Marinids) continued to afford succours, both in men and money, to the people of Andalusia; (particularly Nasrid Granada) . . . When, moreover, the empire came into the possession of the Sultan Abu-l Hasani-l Mariny (Abu al-hasan) and his authority was established in all Almaghrab, as well as in some parts of Andalusia, he fitted out a large fleet for the purpose of carrying on the sacred war in Spain, which he was very anxious to prosecute. p141
It pleased God, however, that the Franks, who had collected vast forces with the design of subduing all that remained to the Moslems, should, after they had taken Algeciras, seized most of this fleet; and when he came himself to Ceuta, with the intention of passing the sea to the assistance of the people of Spain, he found the Franks in possession of the straits, with an innumerable fleet, by which they opposed his passage to Andalusia; and, having made themselves masters of Algeciras, they were enabled to injure his shipping much.
Still he (Abu al-hasan)sent over troops, and commanded them in person till he conquered Gibraltar from the Christians and to the fortifying of this place, which had been twenty years in their hands, but which he took after a siege of six months, he was particularly attentive, spending vast sums of money in building its houses, magazines, and great mosque as well as on its walls, towers and citadel.
Abu al-hasan and Abu Inan Faris strengthen the fortifications of GibraltarBefore, however, these improvements were fully completed, the enemy laid siege to it by sea and land; but their attempt was frustrated by the gallant and persevering defence of the Moslems. After this, the Sultan Abu al-hasan again applied himself to strengthen Gibraltar, by fortifying the foot of the rock with a wall, encircling it on all sides, as the halo surrounds the crescent moon ; so that the enemy could now discover no prospect of success in attacking it, nor did there appear any way to force it by siege: and, his son, Abu-I-Anan (Abu Inan Faris), still augmented its fortifications. p142
The Nasrids take over GibraltarBut, intent as Abu al-hasan was on establishing his power in Andalusia, Algeciras fell to the Christians, in consequence of the defeat which he, together with Ibnu-l Ahmar, suffered at Tarifa from the tyrant: and, Gibraltar was afterwards taken from the Banu Marin, (the Marinids) by Muhammad, surnamed Alghany Billah (al-Ghalib billah), Sultan of Granada (a Nasrid), to whom Lisanu-d Din ibnu-l Khatib was minister. p142
The following seems out of sequence as Abu al-hasan’s exploits as regards Gibraltar have already been dealt with previously. From now on there is no further mention of the history of Gibraltar.
Why Abu al-hasan lost control in IberiaAbout this time, the chiefs of the Franks were divided among themselves: one taking possession of the kingdom of Cordova; another, of Seville; and another, of Xeres. In consequence of this distraction of his enemies, Abu al-hasan gave himself up to luxury; neglecting and wasting his forces, whilst intent upon his pleasures. p143
Such being his disposition, he resigned the management of affairs to his ministers; and, having secluded himself from the eyes of his people, he" abandoned all military enterprise, as well as all attention to the government of his country: an infatuation this which overcame him, that the will of the Almighty might be accomplished.
Hence oppressors and acts of oppression, became numerous: and both high and low condemned the conduct of their Prince; who, imagining that the Christians would never cease from their dissensions and return to the attack of his kingdom . . .
Notes: "Frank" are Iberian Christians most of them probably of Visigothic origins
Battle of Rio Salado – Battle of Tarifa p145It happened, however, that the King of Castile, after fighting some battles, recovered that country; and the rebellious chiefs of polytheism were obliged to submit to him. The power of the Franks being thus reunited, they soon found an opportunity to invade and subdue the land . . .
When the Sultan Abu Abdillah, son of Abu al-hasan, heard of the advantages which his uncle in Malaga had gained over the Christians, he led the people of Granada . . . to war against the enemy; plundering and making captive till he reached the territory of Lucena: but, the Christians of these districts having assembled, and being joined by the governor of Cabra, threw themselves in the rear of the Muslims, and cut off their communication.
. . . the Moslems were defeated and the whole of their army was either slain or made prisoner: amongst the latter was the Sultan himself; whom, on being discovered by the governor of Lucena, the Count of Cabra wished to take from him, but he fled with him by night, and conveyed him to the King of Castile; in consequence of which performance, he was exalted above all the other commanders, and employed on every important enterprise.
Battle of Rio Salado or Tarifa
At the occurrence of this disaster, the principal men of Granada and the nobles of Andalusia went to Malaga, and brought back to Granada Abu al-hasan, to whom they took the oaths of allegiance; he, however, having lost his sight from a paralytic affliction. . . excused himself from undertaking the government; and, abdicating the throne in favour of his brother, Abu Abdillah, he retired to Almunezar where he remained till his death.
Notes: This was the Battle of Rio Salado aka Tarifa which took place in 1340, a complete disaster for Abu al-hasan – and for the Muslims in general as they never again were able to invade Iberia as they had done in the past. It is said that the Marinid Sultan took refuge in Gibraltar before returning to Africa. Granada was still standing
. . . the Sultan of Granada went forth to fortify the country: and, whilst on his tour, being informed that the enemy had encamped without a certain fort, he encountered them. . . but the Moslems, fighting in disorder, were broken, and the enemy penetrated to the tent of the Sultan: on a renewal of the battle, however, the Christians were ultimately defeated,
The Fall of Granadain (1491 AD) the enemy returned to the meadow of Granada, when he destroyed the crops, demolished the towns and built a place with a wall and a ditch around it. (Probably Santa Fe) . . . The contest lasted several months . . . and the enemy persevered with the siege. . . in consequence of the discovery being made that the officers of the army were already in treaty with the Christians on the subject of surrendering the city, terms of capitulation were offered. . . and were obtained . . . no sooner had the Sultan left Spain (1498) than the Christians began to break their treaty . . . p 154/155
Notes: This crucially important moment – the final act of la Reconquista, had little effect on Gibraltar – It had been Christian since 1462.
The End of the Islamic domination in SpainAs to the Sultan, Abu Abdillah Muhammad, son of the Sultan Abu al-hasan, son of the Sultan Saad, son of the Emir Aly, son of the Sultan Yusuf, son of the Sultan Muhammad Alghany Billah, under whom Granada fell, and the dominion of Islamism terminated in Spain, he settled at Fez, as before-mentioned, built some palaces there which the author of this work had seen, in imitation of those he had left in Spain, and died in (1533) leaving two sons, Yusuf and Ahmad. Of his posterity, there were some remaining at Fez in (1627) and the author saw them there. . . p159
Notes: This Chapter on ends on p160. The next one deals with a topographical account of the principal seats of the Mahometan Empire which mainly deal with Cordoba and Granada.
To return to the list of essays on the Introduction please click on the link below